1、欧洲史复习资料Division I : Greek CultureA. The Historical Context a. The earliest civilization to appear around Greece was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted approximately from 2700 (Early Minoan) BC to 1450 BC, and on the Early Helladic period on the Greek mainland from ca. 2800 BC to 2100 BC.
2、 Mycenaean Greece, also known as Bronze Age Greece, is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civilization of Ancient Greece. It lasted from around 1600 BC to 1100 BC. b. 1200 B.C. the war of Troy a war was fought between Greece and Troy, ending in the destruction of Troy. c. 5th century B.C. Greek culture re
3、ached a high point of development. - successful repulse of the Persian invasion - the establishment of democracy - the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens The century closed with civil war between Athens and Spartad. In the second half of the 4th cent
4、ury B.C. all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon Greek culture was spread. In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece B. Social and Political Structurea. Politics: Athens was a democracy Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people.” But “the whole people” the Gree
5、ks meant only the adult male citizens. b. Economy: the economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour. Farm, workshop, mine There was harsh exploitation in Greek society c. Sports: Greeks loved sports A big festival on Olympus Mount once every 4 year - Olympic Games Modern Olympic Gam
6、es revived in 1896 顾拜旦(法) C. Homer ( probably lived around 700 B.C.)Two epics: Iliad Odysseus They are about great men and wars of a remoter age, probably in the period 12001100 B.C D. Lyric PoetrySappho (about 612580 B.C.) woman poet She is noted for her love poems of passionate intensity, some of
7、which are addressed to women. She was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece. Many Greek and Latin writers know nearly all her poems by heart. But in the 10th century the Christian church burned her works. Only fragments remain. Two samples (1) I could not hope (2) In gold sandal
8、s To touch the sky Dawn like a thief With my two arms Fell upon me Pindar (about 518438 B.C.) He is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games, such as the 14 Olympian odes. Pindar also had imitators, such as the 17th-century English poet John Dryden. E. DramaOrigin: per
9、form plays at religious festivals. Develop: in the 5th century B.C. a powerful drama developed States: open-air theatres, audience sat on stone benches and looked down at the stage from three sides, actors wore masks a.TragedyAeschylus (525 456 B.C.) Works: Prometheus Bound, Persians, and Agamemnon
10、In these plays there are only two actors and a chorus. Yet they manage to stir and move the audience deeply by showing heroes and heroines in complicated human situations, out of which there is no escape but death. The play are written in verse. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal a
11、nd majestic poetrySophocles (496 - 406 B.C.) Works: Oedipus the King, Electra厄勒克特拉, and Antigone安提戈涅. Contribution: he added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus. Sophodcles has had a strong impact on European literature. Some of his plots were taken over and adoped by later writers. T
12、he Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freuds term “the Oedipus complex” was also derived from Sophocless play.Euripides (484 - 406 B.C.) Works: Andromache安德洛玛刻, Medea美狄亚, and Trojan Womenb. ComedyAristophanes (about 450 - 380 B.C.) Works: Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds These plays are loose in plot and s
13、atirical in tone. F. History Herodotus (484 - 430 B.C.) Father of History, he wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable. He kept alive many traditional stories, which were not always accurate. His obj
14、ect in writing was that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.Thucydides (about 460 - 404 B.C.) Younger than Herodotus, he is more accurate as an historian. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. He was never dull, but wrote with im
15、agination and power. He was called “the greatest historian that ever lived” by Macaulay (an eminent historian) G. Philosophy and ScienceThe ancient Greeks were curious about many things, including what made the universe. They had the spirit of free enquiry and were quite ready to drop established id
16、eas, to speculate, to use their imagination and to form their own conclusions. They were also not afraid to speak their minds. Pythagoras (about 580 - 500 B.C.) had the idea that all things were number. Heracleitue (about 540 - 480 B.C.) believed fire to be the primary element of the universe He als
17、o said: You cannot step twice into the same river. The sun is new everyday Democritus (about 460 - 370 B.C.) speculated about the atomic structure of matter. He was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory. a. Socrates ( about 470 - 399 B.C.) The dialectical method - method of argument, by
18、 questions and answers. Greek philosopher who initiated a question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of achieving self-knowledge. His theories of virtue and justice have survived through the writings of Plato, his most important pupil. Socrates was tried for corrupting the minds of Athenian y
19、outh and subsequently put to death (399). b. Plato ( about 428 -348 B.C.) Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “idea”, like beauty, truth, goodness. Only these “ideas” are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real. For this reason, Platos philosophy
20、is called Idealism.(唯心主义) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic dialogues, as in The Republic. c. Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) Greek philosopher. A pupil of
21、Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism三段论, is the essential m
22、ethod of rational inquiry. d. Contending Schools of ThoughtIn the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other. They were: The Cynics 犬儒主义got their name because Diogenes.戴奥真尼斯(希腊的哲学家,公主张“简单寡求”的生活，决心像狗一样生活下去。元前412-323), one of their leaders, decided to live like a dog a
23、nd the word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek. He rejected all conventions - whether of religion, of manners, dress, housing, food, or of decency. He advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life. In fact, he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood, not only with the whole human race,
24、 but also with animals. On the other hand, he had no patience with the rich and powerful. The story is told of how Alexander the Great visited him and asked if he wanted any favour. “Only to stand out of my light”, he replied. The Sceptics 怀疑学派 （对一切知识持怀疑态度）followed Pyrrho (皮洛 about 360272B.C.古希腊极端怀疑
25、主义哲学家), who held that not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted the truth of what others accepted as true. The Epicureans伊壁鸠鲁学派（主张将快乐进行到底）were disciples of Epicurus (伊壁鸠鲁 341-270B.C.古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者), who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life, but by pleasure he m
26、eant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval. This he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue. His teaching was misunderstood by later people and the word “Epicurean” has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living. Epicurus was a materialist. Following Democ
27、ritus, he believed that the world consisted of atoms. The Stoics斯多葛派（倡导“克己制欲、顺从天命”） were opposed to the Epicureans. To them , the most important thing in life was not “pleasure”, but “duty”. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic w
28、as Zeno(齐诺about 335 263 B.C. 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人) e. Science Euclid 欧几里得(约公元前3世纪的古希腊数学家) is even now well-known for his Element几何原本, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.Archimedes 阿基
29、米德 (287212 B.C.) did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, machanics, and hydrostatics. “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.” Greek science did not neglect application. Mathematics, the purest of sciences, was applied in at least five fields: acoustics, optics
30、, geography, statics and astronomy. Greek scientists collected a wealth of material and enquired into the proper method of doing scientific work. As a result, they were able to deduce theories and built up systems, which had a tremendous influence on later scientists. H. Architecturea. Art Greek art
31、 is a visual proof of Greek civilization. b. Architecture Greek architecture can be grouped into 3 styles 1) The Doric Style ( masculine style ) is sturdy (strong and firm), powerful, severe looking, showing a good sense of proportions and numbers. 2) The Ionic Style ( feminine style ) is graceful a
32、nd elegant (slightly ornamental style ) ( While the Doric Style is monotonous and unadorned, the Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament) 3) The Corinthian Style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves.doric ionic corinthianThe famous temples:Parthenon (447 - 432 B.C.)- the most perfect of all the Greek temples, 240 feet long and 110 feet wide, a rectangular structure with evenly s
