1、teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability （互换性 ） Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured
2、 the main features of language. First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1）Productivity.2）Discreteness.3）Displacement4）Arbitrarin
3、ess.5）Cultural transmission6）Duality of structure.7）Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in
4、 which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. （ Function of language .） According to Halliday , what are the initial functions of children s language? And what are the three functional compon
5、ents of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children slanguage:1）Instrumental function. 工具功能2）Regulatory function. 调节功能3）Representational function. 表现功能4）Interactional function. 互动功能5）Personal function. 自指性功能6）Heuristic function.启发功能 osbQtqkfh7）Ima
6、ginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1）Interpersonal components. 人际2）Ideational components. 概念3）Textual components. 语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics 语言学5.langue and parole （ 语言与言语 ） The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the member
7、s of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.petence and performance （语言能力与语言运用 ） The former is one s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7.
8、speech and writing （ 口头语与书面语 ） Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior （语言行为潜势与实际语言行为 ） People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavio
9、r. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation （横组合关系与纵聚合关系 ） The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal comm
10、unication and non-verbal communication （ 言语交际与非言语交际 ） Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. How does John Lyons classify linguistics ?According to John Lyons
11、, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1） General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2） Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3） Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4） Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the t
12、hree principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency , adequacy and simplicity .1） Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2） Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generaliz
13、ations.3） Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system ?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1） Phonetics. 语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2） Phonology. 音位学 s
14、tudies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker s native language.3） Morphology. 形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4） Syntax. 句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5） Semantics. 语义学 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sen
15、tences.6） Pragmatics. 语用学 The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language. The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawingconclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics 语音学1.articulato
16、ry phonetics （ 发音语音学 ） The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics （ 声学语音学 ） The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics （ 听觉语音学 ） The study of the way hear
17、ers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant （辅音） Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel （元音）
18、 is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials （双唇音 ） Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. p b m w7.affricates （塞擦音 ） The sound produced by
19、stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. t X dY tr dr8.glottis （声门 ） Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel （圆唇元音 ） Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. u: u OB O10.diphthongs
20、 （双元音） Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.eiai Oi Quau11.triphthongs （三合元音 ） Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. ei QaiQOiQ QuQauQ12.lax
21、 vowels （ 松元音 ） According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,e is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. How are consonants classified in terms of differe
22、nt criteria? The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1）The position of the soft palate.2）The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3）The place of articulation.4）The manner of articulation.2. How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria? Vowel soun
23、ds are differentiated by a number of factors.1）The state of the velum2）The position of the tongue.3）The openness of the mouth.4）The shape of the lips.5）The length of the vowels.6）The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other
24、? Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1）Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2）Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3）Auditory
25、 phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I.The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1）Voiced.2）Nasal.3）Consonantal.4）Vocalic.
26、5）Continuant.6）Anterior.7）Coronal.8）Aspirated.II.The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1）High.2）Low.3）Front.4）Back.5）Rounded.6）Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1.phonemes （音位 ） Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2.allophones （音位变体） Allop
27、hones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3.phones （单音 ） The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4.minimal pair （ 最小对立体 ） Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5.contrastive distribution （
28、对比分布 ） If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.plementary distribution （互补分布 ） If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation （自由变异 ） When two sounds can appear in th
