1、2 公共产品,2,目标,公共产品概述公共产品提供的局部均衡模型公共产品提供的一般均衡模型公共产品提供的困难私人提供公共产品实验经济学对公共产品的研究,3,公共产品public goods概述,公共产品特征（1）消费上的非竞争性（非对抗性）（2）非排他性注意：公共产品的特征是指公共产品的自然属性。某种产品不会因为提供者的改变而改变其产品属性。,3,4,公共产品,4,5,光谱私人产品 公共产品市场失效与政府干预公共产品外部性（外溢性、外部效应）规模报酬递增（自然垄断）信息不对称收入分配不公经济不稳定,6,狭义和广义公共产品资源配置收入分配经济稳定公共产品与公共服务公共服务型政府,7,How to
2、stop the drug wars,Failed states and failed policiesMar 5th 2009From The Economist print editionProhibition has failed;legalisation is the least bad solution一百来年的禁毒史技术上可能吗？,8,知识,John Leach,A Course in Public Economics,Cambridge University Press,2004.(上海财经大学出版社2005年重印)Once something is known,that kno
3、wledge can be used by anyone,and its use by any one person does not preclude its use by others.Our use of calculus to study economics,Others use of calculus to study industry and sciencePublic consumption goodsPublic factors of productionIn 1900,the only“digital technology”was telegraph,9,Knowledge
4、is a public good whose creation requires the expenditure of scarce resources,and which has profound implications for economic welfare.The question of whether a competitive system would allocate sufficient resources to its production is then of crucial importance.No.Innovators are driven by many thin
5、gs:curiosity,altruism,desire for fame or fortune-but they must still put food on their tables and equipment in their laboratories,To depend at least in part on economic incentives Social cost of additional research=social benefit,10,知识,布赖恩卡欣Brian Kahin and哈尔瓦里安 Hal R.Varian：Internet Publishing and B
6、eyond:The Economics of Digital Information,传媒经济学：数字信息经济学与知识产权，中信出版社，2003年。（英文2000年）信息的复制与传播成本几乎为零，至少对文本信息是这样。我的浏览不影响你的浏览,11,知识,出版商如何收费？营销方式的改变，大不列颠百科全书，广告支撑 现刊不收费 从收费到不收费Varian www.sims.berkeley.edu/hal New!Hal R.Varian I am a professor in the School of Information,the Haas School of Business,and th
7、e Department of Economics at the University of California at Berkeley.I am currently on leave from Berkeley and am serving as Chief Economist at Google.,12,知识,电子出版盈利模式中文世界与英文世界有何不同？复印与盗版,13,收入再分配,People do care about the welfare of others.人们的确关心其他人的福利Government-mandated and voluntary redistribution政
8、府强制性再分配与资源再分配Charity as a public good作为公共产品的慈善,14,Avinash K.Dixit,国家，法律：公共产品私立秩序：超越或补充了政府的弱经济治理模式私立秩序：长期关系、仲裁、传播信息的社会网络和交易中奉行的准则，营利性合约执行Avinash K.Dixit,2004,Lawlessness and Economics:Alternative Modes of Governance,Princeton University Press.法律缺失与经济学：可供选择的经济治理模式，中国人民出版社，2007.,15,为什么不同时期不同国家所提供的公共产品不
9、同,人口结构的变化技术进步水利 我过去主持水利部工作，犯了一个错误，只注重社会经济用水，没认识到首先要保证河流的生态与环境用水。钱正英成本收益,16,经济转型期的公共产品提供,国家作为经济实体：资源多，规模大 中国国有资源国家作为强制性机构：强制力，垄断地位。执行合同，表达自己的意志两种国家观：机械体、有机体,17,国家的三只手无为之手（看不见的手）扶持之手helping hand（福利经济学）掠夺之手grabbing hand（公共选择理论）同时国家的两难困境：该如何设计国家制度？王一江 等：国家与经济：关于转型中的中国市场经济改革，北京大学出版社2007年版。,18,公共产品概述,公共产品
10、理论：现代公共财政学（公共经济学）的核心理论Richard A.Musgrave（19102007）http:/www.law.harvard.edu/news/2007/01/16_musgrave.php 公共产品公共支出 政府的存在是为了提供公共产品税收（公共产品的价格）,19,公共产品提供的局部均衡模型,最优水平？庇古模型庇古（ACPigou，1877-1959）运用功利主义的方法，假定：每个人都从公共产品的消费中受益（获得效用）；公共产品的提供支付成本即交纳税收；纳税会给纳税人（即公共产品的消费者）带来负效用。庇古把税收产生的负效用，定义为放弃私人产品消费的机会成本。他认为，公共产品
11、应该持续提供到最后一元钱所得到的正边际社会效用等于为最后一元公共产品而纳税的负边际效用相等时。,20,鲍温模型 Howard Rothmann Bowen(October 27,1908 December 22,1989),Howard R Bowen，The Interpretation of Voting in the Allocation of Economic Resources，Quarterly Journal of Economics,Vol.58,No.1.(1943),pp.27-48.Individual goods，divisibility Social goods高等教
12、育,21,鲍温模型 Howard Rothmann Bowen(October 27,1908 December 22,1989),22,鲍温模型,私人产品：横向相加公共产品：纵向相加与私人产品的需求曲线不同的是，公共产品的需求曲线是虚拟的。消费者购买私人产品所支付的货币数量，会反映其对私人产品的实际需求，但市场无法直接提供公共产品的实际需求信息。这里所假定的某人对公共产品的需求曲线，只是模拟市场作出的。这种假定的意义在于突出私人产品与公共产品需求上存在的差异。,23,Bowen 论文的主要内容,Individual goods and social goods comparedQuantit
13、ative measurement of social goodsIdeal output of social goodsIndividual voting on outputsIndividual voting on increments to existing outputs Alternatives to votingDistributing the cost of social goodsSocial goods not equally available to all voters,24,纯公共产品最优提供的一般均衡模型,杨志勇 张 馨,25,杨志勇 张 馨,26,公共产品提供的萨缪
14、尔森条件,消费上的边际替代率之和等于生产上的边际转换率MRSMRTPaul A.Samuelson,1954,Pure Theory of Public Expenditure,Review of Economics and Statistics,36(11):387-389._,1955,Diagrammatic Exposition of A Theory of Public Expenditure,Review of Economics and Statistics,37(11):350-356.,杨志勇,27,公共产品供应的威克塞尔林达尔模型（WL模型）,杨志勇,28,WL模型,W-L
15、模型是一个局部均衡模型，提出的时间比萨缪尔森模型要早。它又不同于鲍温和庇古的模型，因为它考虑了政治因素。W-L模型试图找出民主社会中公共产品产出的合理水平，以及在不同的人之间如何分摊公共产品的成本即税收负担问题。A New Principle of Just Taxation;K.Wicksell（18511926）1885年数学博士，1887 听了门格尔的讲座之后，兴趣转向社会科学 Just Taxation:A Positive Solution;E.Lindahl（18911960）Alan T.Peacock and Richard A.Musgrave(eds.),1958,Clas
16、sics in the Theory of Public Finance,MacMillan,经典财政理论,29,The Classics,This book was prepared mainly for specialists on the assumption that it would provide the background to an important neglected field of discussion in public finance.Since it was first published in 1958,the theory of public goods a
17、nd its implications for public policy have become incorporated in the main body of the economic analysis of public finance in the literature.A glance at the footnotes of some of the standard textbooks on public finance indicates that this assembly of articles has not been in vain.,30,The Classics,Pr
18、obably the most influential part of this collection has been the papers concerned with the theory of public expenditure,which contains two closely related elements.The first is as a part of welfare economics:under what conditions can Pareto optimality be achieved in an economic system in which some
19、goods supplied are indivisible?The other strand of thought is concerned with the positive theory of the public sector:how can economic analysis be used in order to explain how the size and composition of the budget is actually determined?,31,公共产品提供的困难与公共产品的私人提供,杨志勇 张 馨,“囚徒困境”模型公共产品提供犹如“囚徒困境”，合作与搭便车问
20、题,32,“囚徒困境”的解脱,一种机制,杨志勇 张 馨,33,公共产品的私人提供,现实中私人提供公共产品：慈善事业（与“搭便车”比较）非营利性组织科斯（1974）：the Lighthouse in Economics经济学中的灯塔BBV1986Journal of Public Economics celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Bergstrom,Blume,and Varian paper on public goods.,杨志勇 张 馨,34,35,36,Dixit,A.,and M.Olson.Does Voluntary Partic
21、ipation Undermine the Coase Theorem?Journal of Public Economics 76,no.3(June 2000):309-335.,37,Corporate Social Responsiblity,38,Empirical estimation and public goods,Estimation of demand for private goods versus public goodsCharitable givingCharitable giving（New Palgrave,2e.）Direct evaluation techn
22、iques and public goods contingent valuation methods or survey approach asks individuals to state their willingness to pay for public goods-a compensated valuation(CV)measure of consumer surplus for each individual experimental economics and public goods another direct method:voting method,39,公共产品论的实
23、验经济学视角研究,实验经济学介绍公共产品提供实验的分类对“搭便车”程度的研究减少“搭便车”机制的研究对公共产品理论研究的其他影响,杨志勇 张 馨,40,Indirect evaluation techniques and public goodsTo utilize market-provided data to estimate a demand for public goods Indirect:from private goods to public goods the hedonic approach享乐主义方法:an individual demands goods to use i
24、n the household production of final characteristics or commodities,which provide satisfactionFirst step:the implicit price of a public characteristic(e.g.,clean air)must be estimated,using price differentials revealed in the private goods marketSecond step:the implicit price must be regressed agains
25、t the observed quantities of the public characteristics to estimate the demand function the selling price for a house,41,Travel-cost methodsTo account for the effects that a sites characteristics have on the demand for the sites services,A third indirect evaluation procedure a related market techniq
26、ue uses market-observable demands for private goods to estimate demands for consumption-related public goods two requirements must be met:1)the individuals demand price for the public good must be zero when the quantity of the private good is zero,interdependence between private good and public good
27、2)there must be no income effects.to use a consumer surplus measure of the inverse demand function for the private good to estimate the inverse demand for public good as the public good quantity changes.,42,Some directions for future research,Models of n-person asymmetric pure public goods(identical
28、 individuals-)Joint productsInstitutional rules and public goods(alternative sharing rules)Applied workClubs,43,小结,公共产品理论是公共经济学的核心理论。公共产品最优提供的庇古模型说明，公共产品的提供带给个人的边际效用，应该等于纳税带给他的负边际效用。鲍温模型指出，私人产品的市场需求曲线是个人需求曲线横向相加的结果，而公共产品的社会需求曲线是个人需求曲线纵向相加的结果。萨缪尔森模型给出了公共产品提供的最优条件，即个人对公共产品的消费的边际替代率之和，等于公共产品生产的边际转换率。,杨
29、志勇 张 馨,44,小结,公共产品最优提供的威克塞尔林达尔模型，研究了平等的个人（政党）之间共同分摊公共产品成本的问题。公共产品提供的困难，在于个人对公共产品的偏好不易揭示所致。公共产品主要由公共部门提供，原因是私人不能有效提供，而非私人绝对不能或不愿提供公共产品。实验经济学对公共产品的提供，进行了多方面的实验。未来公共产品理论的研究方向,杨志勇 张 馨,45,Richard Cornes and Todd Sandler,1996,The Theory of Externalities,Public Goods,and Club Goods,2e.,Cambridge University Press.(1986,1e),
