1、 it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。 2. Synchronic and DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic stud
2、y。共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述3. Speech and Writing.4. Langue and ParoleThis is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure （索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualize
3、d（实际的） language, or realization of langue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。5. Competenceand and PerformanceCompetence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances（发声）. 语言能力定为理想的语言使用者
4、关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。6Modern linguistics and traditional grammar现代语言学与传统语法Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 语言学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.现代语言学家认为口头语是最基本的，而不是书面语。Then, modern l
5、inguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。语言的本质特征1 Language is a system,i.e,elements of la
6、nguage are combined according to certain rules. 语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则 2 Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. 语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。3 Language is vocal because the primary medium for
7、all languages is sound. 语言是有声，因为所有语言的主要媒介都是声音4 Language is human-specific,i.e.,it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 语言是人类特有的，它与其他生物的交际系统不同Design features of language 语言的结构，识别特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that disting
8、uish it from any animal system of communication. 识别的特征指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征1 arbitrariness -It means that there is no logical convention between meaning and sounds. 任意性-意味意义和语言之间的没有什么逻辑的联系2 productivity or Creativity -language is productivity or creativity in that it makes possible the construction
9、and interpretation of new signals by its users. 能产性-语言是能产的或具有创造性的，它使得者可以建构或和解释的新的符号3 duality -language is system,which consists of two sets of structures. 双重性- 语言系统，它由两种结构组成套the lower or the basic level-sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words the higher level -words
10、 which are meaningful. 4Displacement- Language can be use to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker。移位性-语言能够指远离说话人所在场合的情境5 Cultural transmission while human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, b
11、ut instead have to be taught and learned. 文化传承性-而人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，任何语言系统的细节都要靠传教和学习。Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonologyPhonetics the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.语音学是对语言的媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中所有的语音Three branches of phonetics语音学三
12、个分支Articulatory :tikjuleitri phonetics-发音语音学 （历史最悠久）Auditory .:ditri phonetics-听觉语音学Acoustic ku:stik phonetics-声学语音学 three important cavities Organs of speech三个重要区域发音器官Pharyngeal frindi:l cavity - the throat rut;咽腔，喉咙The oral cavity - the mouth;口腔，嘴巴Nasal nezl cavity - the nose.鼻腔，鼻子Lips, teeth, tee
13、th ridge rid （alveolus）齿龈, hard palate硬腭, soft palate （velum）软腭, uvula ju:vjul小舌, tip of tongue International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）.国际音标 Orthographic :rfikrepresentation of speech sounds语音的正字法表征Broad transcription【trnskrp】- the transcription with letter-symbols only 宽式标音是用代表字母的符号标音Narrow transcrip
14、tion -the transcription with diacritics.,daikritik严式标音是用代表字母的符号和变音共同标音Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. ,nimpi:did清音是当声带完全张开，气流通过声带而不引起振动Voicing/ voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pus
15、hes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration vabren effect浊化是当气流在强行穿过的时候会使他们以不同的速度振动。Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类 Vowels val and Consonants knsnnt 元音和辅音Classification of consonants辅音的分类- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensionsdimenn:1The manner
16、 of articulation 2 The place of articulation 英语中的辅音按两种标准划分：1发音方式 2发音部位The manner of articulationn stops/plosives: p, , t, d, k, g;闭塞音 fricatives friktiv: f, v, s, z, , , , , h; 摩擦音 affricates frikit: , ; 塞擦音 liquids likwid: r;l流音 nasals nezl: m, n, ; 鼻音 glideslaid : w, j.滑音 The place of articulation
17、 bilabial baileibil: p, m, w,b双唇音n labiodental leibiudentl: f, v; 唇齿音n dental.dentl: W, T;齿音n alveolar lvil: t, d, s, z, n, l, r;齿龈音n palatal pltl: F, V, tF, dV, j; 腭音n velar vi:l: k, g, N;软颚音 n glottal ltl: h. 喉音Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类1. the part of the tongue that is raised-front,
18、center or back2. the opening of the mouth-close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips-rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound-tense, lax （紧，松）n Monophthongs mnufor pure/single vowels元音n Diphthongsdf,: or gliding vowels双元音front vowels central vowels back vowelsClose闭Semi-close: 半闭
19、Semi-open:半开 n Open:开 PhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology foc
20、uses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same
21、aspect of language-the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features th
22、ey have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit phonemePhoneme: the mean-distingui
23、shing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhonen A phone- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do
24、, some dont, e.g. bI:t & bIt , spIt & spIt.Phonemen A phoneme- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp an
25、d spIt.Allophonen Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.n Phonemic contrast-different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt.n Complementary dis
26、tribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p.Minimal pairn Minimal pair-when two different forms are identical （the same） in every way except
27、for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologyn Sequential rulesn Assimilation rulen Deletion ruleSequential rules - the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g.
