1、精选语用失误及其原因第三章 语用失误及其原因本章学习目标1. 明确语用失误的内涵2. 了解语用失误的分类3. 了解语用失误的表现形式4. 掌握语用失误的原因本章概述外语教学的最终目的就是培养学习者的交际能力。然而，学习者能否进行有效的交流不仅仅取决于他们的语法能力，更取决于其语用能力，即非母语者在不同情景中正确、得体地使用该语言进行交流的能力。但是长时间以来，中国的英语教学受传统教学法的影响，更加重视语言知识的传授而忽视了文化因素。结果大部分学生都由于语用能力欠缺而导致交际中断和交际失败。随着社会的进步与发展，世界各国、各民族之间的交流合作日益增强。外语作为交际工具，在现代社会生活中发挥着重要
2、作用。随着跨文化交际的日趋频繁和跨文化交际中交际失败的不断出现，作为语用学及其分支学科一语际语语用学的热点话题之一，语用失误引起了国内外语言学家及语言学习者的重视。本章介绍了语用失误内涵和分类、表现形式以及导致语用失误的因素。希望通过本章的学习，学习者能明确了解语用失误的必要性，初步具备避免语用失误的意识并能运用有效的手段在日后的学习中逐步培养语用能力。自主学习调查问卷同学们，为了了解你们的语用失误意识，请参与本次调查。谢谢合作！Directions: For each question in this part, you are presented with a short descript
3、ion of a situation and four choices. Read the description of each situation and select the most appropriate choice in that situation. Mark your choice by writing the corresponding letter in the brackets.1. At a bus stopMan：Excuse me，do you know which bus to catch for London Road，please?Woman：Sorry，I
4、ve no ideaMan：( )A) It doesnt matterB) OhC) Never mindD) Thank you(He then went up to another person.)2. Prof. Smith says to you in a seminar, “You might be interested in having a look at Blooms article on this.” Then you will take it as( )A) a suggestion. B) a request. C) an indirect command and yo
5、u may ask, “Do you want me to read that for the next essay?” D) an assignment.3. Graham met his teacher, Professor South, outside the library.G: Good morning. Professor South, how are you?Prof. S: Very well, thank you. Graham, and how are you?G: ( )A) Oh, cant complain. B) Im very well too, thank yo
6、u.C) Same old thing. D) Just so-so.4.You overheard someone say to another, “You are to be here by eight.” Then the relationship between the speaker and the hearer is probably( ).(A) Teacher and student B) Husband and wife C) Sisters D) Friends5. At a dinnerA: May I have the biscuits?B: ( )A) Sure. (
7、handing along the biscuits) B) Yes, help yourself.C) Go ahead. D) Yes, of course.6. Patrick is sitting in a car with some friends. He has just asked if anyone minds his smoking. One of the friends in the car, Gillian, is allergic to smoke. What would she say?Patrick: OK if I smoke here?Gillian: ( )A
8、) Would you mind if I said no, Patrick?B) Cant you stay without smoking?C) Its not OK.D) No, of course not.7. In a factory, the guide is interpreting for a group of foreign guests. When they have finished visiting one workshop, he would like the group to follow him to the next workshop, he says: ( )
9、A) This way, please. B) Come here. C) Follow me. D) Move on.8. Joyce is talking to her friend, Brenda.J: I wonder if youd mind posting this letter for me on your way home, Brenda?Brenda：( )A) Youre welcome. B) I dont care. C) I dont mind. D)Yes, sure.9. Danial was poor at cooking. But today its his
10、turn to do cooking. After breakfast, his two friends are talking.A: Whos made this breakfast? B: Dan.A: Oh, I see. Its terrific, isnt it? By this A means: ( )A) Dan had done a good job.B) The breakfast is really satisfactory.C) The breakfast is so good that you should all think so.D) The breakfast i
11、s terrible.10. If someone offers you some food that you really dont like, you might say: ( )A) Im fed up. B) I dont care for that. C) Sure, Id love some more. D) Thanks, but Im really full.11. You are asking your foreign teacher to correct your application letter, you say: ( )A)You see Ive never wri
12、tten a letter in English before. So Ive probably made lots of mistakes.B) Im sorry to interrupt you.You see Ive never written a letter in English before. So Ive probably made lots of mistakes.C) I wonder if you are free or not.You see Ive never written a letter in English before. So Ive probably mad
13、e lots of mistakes.D) Could you please help me correct my application letter?12. Mr Timms has arrived for a meeting which, unfortunately, has been cancelledMrs Banks：Im terribly sorry about not letting you know sooner, Mr Timms, but unfortunately it was cancelled at the last minute and there simply
14、wasnt enough time to inform everyoneMr Timms：A) Oh, dont let it worry you, Mrs Banks. I quite understand. B) Oh, thats OK, Mrs Banks. I understandC) Oh, it doesnt matter, Mrs BanksD) Oh, dont worry about it, Mrs Banks13.Prof Smith has just given a lively lecture on language teaching, which lasts two
15、 hours.And you say to him in appreciation ( ).A) Youve given a wonderful speech.B) Prof. Smith, your lecture was such an attractive one that Id like to listen to you for another two hours.C) I must say, I really appreciate your talk this morning, Prof. Smith.D) What an excellent lecture youve given,
16、 Prof. Smith.14. Youve just finished a lecture, and you say to the audience, ( )A) What Ive said is not complete, Im afraid. B) Thank you. I hope you enjoyed my talk.C) There must be lots of mistakes. Please correct me any time.D) Ive wasted your time.15. Mr.Greens secretary, Jane, went to the airpo
17、rt to meet Mr. Barnes for her boss.Jane: ( )A) “Excuse me, would you be Mr. Barnes?”B) “Are you Mr. Barnes?”C) “Excuse me, would you please tell me if you are Mr. Barnes?”D) “You are Mr. Barnes, arent you?”16. When introducing yourself to someone you dont know at a party, what would you say?( )A) Hi
18、, Im_.B) May I introduce myself to you and at the same time I make your acquaintance?C) Hi, Id like to meet you.D) Hi, Im_. Do you know many people here?17. You and the wife of the manager Mrs. Green are on the way to the fashion show.Mrs. Green, “Its really cold tonight.” You: ( )A) Here, take my j
19、acket. B) Are you afraid of the cold?C) Yes, it is, isnt it? D) Really? I dont think so.18. Which topic is more appropriate to discuss immediately after an introduction? ( )A) Marital status. B) Occupation. C) Religion. D) Age.19. Youve been asked out to dinner but you dont want to go with the perso
20、n who invited you.You might say:( )A) I dont think so. I already have plans.B) No, I really dont enjoy being with you.C) Im dieting so I mustnt go out to eat.D) Thanks a lot but Im busy tonight.20. At a party or social occasions, how would you indicate that it was time for you to leave someones home
21、? ( )A) I would say, “Its getting late and Id better be going.”B) I would say, “Im sorry, I have to leave now.”C) I would wait until the host said something.D) I would make up an excuse (e.g.I have to get up early tomorrow, etc.) and thank the hosts.Directions: For each statement in this part, you a
22、re required to judge whether it is right or wrong.21. When you talk with an American friend, the body distance is 0.5 meter. ( ) A. right B. wrong 22. In the class, when the foreign teacher asks a question, the students always keep silent. ( ) A. right B. wrong23. When you travel in Thailand, you to
23、uch the childs head since you feel he is very lovely. ( ) A. right B. wrong24. When you talk with an American friend, you should have an eye contact with him. ( ) A. right B. wrong25. You can use the gesture of “OK” to show your agreement in France. ( )A. right B. wrong(改编自何自然调查问卷)第一节 语用学与语用失误1. 语用学
24、概述语用学（pragmatics）语用学是一门新兴的学科，是语言学研究的较新的一个领域。语用学（pragmatics）这一术语的使用最早是由美国哲学家C. Morris 和R. Carnap在20世纪中后期提出来的。但此时语用学只是作为符号学的组成部分。他们在符号学理论基础中指出：语用学研究“符号与符号解释者的关系”，研究“符号的有生命方面，即研究符号作用下出现的所有心理、生理和社会现象（Morris 1971:17-74）。正如所有新兴的学科一样，语用学的研究也经历了一个不断探索不断发展的过程。在语用学发展的初始阶段，语用学曾被视为语义学的废纸篓。此时的语言学家们更加关注抽象的原则与语言逻辑
25、。但是随着语境的引入及人们对于实际使用语言的重视，语用学逐渐成为一门独立的学科，正如何兆熊（2000：4）先生所说“语境因素一旦进入了语义研究的范围，便为语用研究开辟了道路。语用研究进而迅速发展成为一门相对独立的学科。” 那么什么是语用学呢？从字面上而言，语用学就是研究如何使用语言的学科。但是对于语用学的定义远没有这么简单。下面我们回顾一下专家们对语用学所下的定义。Stalnaker（1972：383）将语用学定义为“语用学是对语言行为以及实施这些行为的语境所作的研究。”George Yule (2000: 3) 认为语用学所关注的四个领域分别是（1）语用学是对说话人含义的研究（2）语用学是对
26、语境意义的研究。（3）语用学是对所获得的交际比所说的内容多多少的研究。（4）语用学是对相对距离描述的研究。Leech（1983：x）将语用学定义为“对于语用学可以下这样的定义，它是对话语怎样在情景中获得意义的研究。”Mey (2004:42) 认为“语用学在本质上关注实际生活场景中语言的使用者及怎样使他们有效并得体地运用语言技能和资料的条件”。我国的学者也对语用学下了不同的定义。何自然（1997：1）认为“语用学（pragmatics）是语言学的一个较新的领域，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境（context）来理解和使用语言”。胡壮麟（2001：20）认为“语用学研究语境当中的
27、意义”。“换句话说，语用学更关注语言交际的方式而不是语言建构（structured）的方式”。尽管以上的定义各不相同，但是它们共同关注了两个问题，即意义与语境。这也是语用学研究的两个基本概念。意义（meaning）对于意义，有同学可能会问，语义学也是研究意义的。语用学与语义学是不是一样呢？在这里有必要对此稍作澄清。上文中我们曾经提到语用学曾被视为语义学研究的废纸篓，语义学家们将他们无法解释的现象都扔进了这个“废纸篓”。传统语义学关注的是句子所包含的语义命题的真实值，以及判断一个命题内容真实还是谬误所要满足的条件。 例如：He arrived late and missed the train.
28、 这个句子由两个命题组成，命题p “He arrived late”，命题q “He missed the train”。两个命题由合取连词连接。那么该句的命题为p & q，如果p为真并且q也为真，那么p & q为真，如果p或q不为真，那么p & q为假。德国哲学家Frege认为只有“思想”（thought）才可能具有真实值。“思想”就是句子的“意义”。Frege注意到并不是所有的句子都表达了思想，有的句子不具有表达思想的那种意义，有些句子表达了比思想更多的内容，有些句子不足以表达思想，其中包括表达请求、命令、意愿、感叹的句子等。Frege将这三种类型的句子都扔到了语用学的“废纸篓”。假设我们
29、说“The room is cold .” 那么对于语义学家们来说，只有当此句话表达了可以判别其真实与否的思想，即 “这个屋子冷”时，它才具有研究的意义。但是我们知道，这句话在真实生活中不仅具有陈述事实的作用，更多情况下，具有暗示请求的作用，如：“屋子冷，能不能打开暖气？”因此语用学所研究的意义更注重真实生活场景中言语的意义。语境（context）语用学研究的另外一个基本概念就是语境。语用学与传统语义学的一个重要差别就是是否将语境纳入研究之中。下面我们对语境的发展做一下概述。语境的研究涉及多学科，诸如语用学，人类学，认知心理学，社会学，认知及互动社会学，认知科学等等。总的来说，对于语境的发展人
30、们将其分为传统的静态的语境观和动态语境观。传统的语境观强调语境对交际的制约作用而忽视交际主体的主观能动性。动态语境观动态地研究语境，重视交际主体的能动性。语境因素是语用学研究的重要概念之一。1）传统的静态语境观人类学家马林诺夫斯基(B. Malinowski)在调查新几内亚东部的特罗布兰德群岛当地民族的原始文化时，注意到了语言与社会和文化的关系。1923年，马林诺夫斯基在原始语言中的意义问题一文中，区别了两种语言使用情景。其中一种被称为“有魔力的”情景，似乎一个词或一句话可以直接使外部世界发生变化，即话语的含义就是当时当地正在发生的人的活动。用于人类典型的日常活动的语言，其意义直接来自这些活动
31、。这就是他所说的“情景环境”（context of situation）。在1935年出版的珊瑚园及其魔力一书中，马林诺夫斯基进一步指出“我认为，即使在人类思维和语言运用的最抽象，最理论性的各方面，真正理解词的意义，归根结底是取决与亲身经历现实中的这些方面，归根结底，一切词的意义都来自于亲身经历” 。他还区分了文化语境（context of culture），即说话者生活于其中的社会文化。他认为语言基本上植根于说该语言的民族的文化，社会生活和习俗，不参照这些广泛的语境便难以正确理解语言。马林诺夫斯基提出的“情景语境”和“意义是语境中的功能”这两个概念为后世对语境的研究给予了理论支持。 伦敦学派
32、的创始人费斯(J. R. Firth)扩展了马林诺夫斯基的语言环境概念。他认为进行语言交流的语言环境使下列范畴之间呈现一定的关系：A：参加者的有关特征：是哪些人，有什么样的性格，有什么有关特征 （1）参加者的语言行为 （2）参加者的语言外的行为B：有关的事物和非语言性，非人格性的事件C：语言行为的效果费斯曾经说过“-在一定意义上，语境环境涉及到一个人的全部经历和文化历史，在语言环境中，过去，现在和将来都融合在一起”（刘润清 1995：288）。由此可见，在费斯的语境观里，语境扩展到整个社会环境，文化，信仰，参加者的特征，关系等等。但是，费斯很快意识到了这种语境观的庞杂性和不可驾驭性，因此他提出了“典型语境环境”，即人们
