1、戴炜栋简明语言学教程配套笔记自己整理版精编版Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学A The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formul
2、ated; Hypotheses are tested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed.B The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (Ho
3、w speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes
4、are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistic
5、s: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mat
6、hematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguisticsC Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes thr
7、ough time. Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole: refers to the reali
8、zation of langue in actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics co
9、mmunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）What is language? 什么是语言A The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)a) System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起）b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguist
10、ic symbol and what the symbol stands for（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d) Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）BDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima
11、l system of communication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a) echo of the soun
12、ds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词）b) some compound words （某些复合词）Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two l
13、evels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts
14、 removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetical
15、ly transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学A The definition of phonetics（语音学）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the w
16、orlds languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学）Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via t
17、he ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学）B Organs of speech （发音器官）Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, cre
18、ating a vibration effect.All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The nasal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8,
19、 back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10 C Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号）Narrow transcription: the transcr
20、iption with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符）E.g.:l li:f- a clear l (no diacritic)l bild- a dark l ()l help- a dental l ( )p pit- an aspirated ph(h表示送气)p spit- an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n b tn a syllabic nasal n ( )D Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类）In terms of manne
21、r of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created)Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/gFricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /, /, h (approximant)Affricates塞擦音
22、: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t/dLiquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthl a lateral sound; r retroflexGlides滑音: w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h ap
23、proximantsNasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b, w (velar)labiodentals唇齿音: the lower l
24、ip and the upper teeth f/vdental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth /alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, rpalatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate /, t/d, jvelars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal喉音: the glotta
25、l is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类） The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are
26、unrounded vowels except All the back vowels, except : are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowelsF The definition of phonology（音位学）Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; ho
27、w they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these so
28、unds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.G Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象
29、的单位）Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）H Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur i
30、n the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/ （要会判断！）Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not
31、appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.I Some rules in phonology sequentia
