1、广东省高等教育自学考试语言学复习要点广东省高等教育自学考试语言学复习要点Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? 语言学的定义: 2 featuresLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1)It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2)It is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic d
2、ata, using some general theory of language structure. 1.2 The scope/branches of linguistics语言学的研究范畴: 7 major and 3 interdisciplinary 1)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics（普通语言学）. 2)The study of sounds used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics（语音学）. 3)The
3、study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called phonology（音系学）. 4)The study of how morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology（形态学）. 5)The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）. 6)The study of meaning conveyed
4、 by language is called semantics（语义学）. 7)The study of meaning in context of language use is called pragmatics（语用学）. 8)The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics（社会语言学）. 9)The study of language with reference to psychology is called psycholinguistics（心理语言学）. 10)The stu
5、dy of applications of linguistic study is generally known as applied linguistics（应用语言学）. But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.11)Other relat
6、ed branches include anthropological linguistics（人类语言学）, neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics（数字语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 1.3 Five important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech vs. writing, l
7、angue vs. parole, competence vs. performance1)Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be
8、 prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时和历时The descript
9、ion of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.3)Speech vs. writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern lin
10、guistics regards the spoken form of language as natural or primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1.Linguistic evolution 2.Everyday communication3.Personal acquisition4)Langue vs. parole 语言和言语made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th centuryLangue refers to the abstract li
11、nguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to dis
12、cover langue, i.e. the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 5)Competence vs. performance 语言能力和语言运用proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languag
13、e, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover the ideal speakers competence. langue vs. competence, parole vs. performance6)Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics 传统语言学和现代语言学Definition: modern linguis
14、tics marked by Saussures book in the early 20th century; the general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is called traditional grammarDifference: 1.descriptive vs. prescriptive 2.spoken vs. written3.Latin-based framework1.4 What is language? 语言的定义: 3 featuresLanguage i
15、s a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.5 Design features of language 语言的识别特征: 5 features: arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmissionDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal syst
16、em of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.1)Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary: onomatopoeic words, compound words. 2
17、)Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Productivity is unique to human
18、language. 3)Duality/double articulation 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.4)Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to contexts removed
19、from the immediate situations of the speaker.Language is free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. 5)Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性Language is culturally transmitted, not genetically transmitted. While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the abil
20、ity to acquire language, the details of any language have to be taught and learned.It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 2.1 The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natura
21、l languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importa
22、nce than that of writing. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but only those which are produced by humans through their speech organs, and which are meaningful in communication. The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介
23、) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds（语音）.2.2 What is phonetics? 语音学的定义Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 Three branches of phonetics: A
24、rticulatory phonetics （发音语音学）: from the speakers point of view, how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds, has the longest history Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）: from the hearers point of view, how the sounds are perceived by he hearerAcoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: by looking at the sou
25、nd waves, the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another, spectrograghs2. 3Organs of speech 发音器官1)The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔: the throat from lungs through windpipe to glottis（声门）glottis is the first point where sound modification might occur vibra
26、tion leading to voicing（浊音化）: voiced vs. voiceless2)The oral cavity 口腔: the mouththe greatest source of modification the tongue is the most flexible 3)The nasal cavity 鼻腔: the noseclosing of the velum leading to nasalization（鼻音化）All the vowels are most consonants in English are not nasalized.2.4Orth
27、ographic representation of speech sounds 语音的书写形式 IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）broad transcription (宽式音标): the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, dictionaries and textbooksnarrow transcription (窄式音标): the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号),
28、used by the phoneticians实例：(1) 对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音，在窄式音标中加变音符号(2) 对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音(aspirated)，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音(unaspirated)，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit
29、2.5Classification of English consonants 英语辅音的分类1) by manner of articulation 按发音方式分: 6 typesStop/plosive 塞音或爆破音 Fricative 擦音 Affricate 塞擦音Liquid流音Nasal鼻音 Glide滑音2) by place of articulation按发音部位分: 7 types Bilabial双唇音 Labiodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Glottal声门音2.6Classification of Eng
30、lish vowels 英语元音的分类1) by position of the tongue按舌头在口中的位置分：3 typesFront vowel前元音 Central vowel中元音 Back vowel后元音2) by the openness of the mouth按口形的大小分：4 types Close vowel闭元音Semi-close vowelOpen vowel开元音Semi-open vowel半开元音3) by the shape of the lips 按唇形是否为圆分: 2 typesUnrounded vowel不圆唇元音: all the front
31、and central vowelsRounded vowel圆唇元音4) by the length按语音的长短分: 2 types Long vowel长元音Short vowel短元音5) monophthongs 单元音vs. diphthong双元音2.7 Phonology vs. phonetics音系学和语音学Sameness: both are studies of speech soundsDifference: 1) subject: general vs. particular 2) focus: sounds themselves vs. combination an
32、d meaning实例：单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。2.8 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 音素、音位、音位变体phone: phonetic unit, actual, the speech sounds we use when speaking a language, does not necessarily distin
