1、论文写作Writing the IntroductionWarm-upConsider the following questions:What is the purpose of introduction?What should be covered in introduction?What should I do or not do when I write an introduction?Elaboration:Purpose of introductionAn introduction introduces the research by placing it in a theoret
2、ical context (by giving background), presenting the research problem and saying how and why this problem will be solved. Without this important information the reader cannot easily understand the more detailed information about the research that comes later in the thesis. It also explains why the re
3、search is being done (rationale) which is crucial for the reader to understand the significance of the study.After reading an introduction, the reader should be able to answer most of these questions:1What is the context of this problem? In what situation or environment can this problem be observed?
4、 (Background)2Why is this research important? Who will benefit? Why do we need to know this? Why does this situation, method, model or piece of equipment need to be improved? (Rationale)3 What is it we dont know? What is the gap in our knowledge this research will fill? What needs to be improved? (P
5、roblem Statement)4 What steps will the researcher take to try and fill this gap or improve the situation? (Objectives)5 Is there any aspect of the problem the researcher will not discuss? Is the study limited to a specific geographical area or to only certain aspects of the situation? (Scope)6 Is th
6、ere any factor, condition or circumstance that prevents the researcher from achieving all his/her objectives? (Limitations)7 In considering his/her method, model, formulation or approach, does the researcher take certain conditions, states, requirements for granted? Are there certain fundamental con
7、ditions or states the researcher takes to be true? (Assumptions)Look at the following example; see how many questions above you can answer after reading it.Example:It is well known that when an object moves through air or water it experiences resistance to that motion. That resistance is caused by f
8、riction between the particles that make up the fluid. Understanding this so called drag force is essential in order to predict the motion of objects through a fluid. For example, knowledge of the drag force is needed to predict the power required to propel a car at a given speed. In the present stud
9、y, the parameters that effect drag force experienced by an object moving through air will be explored.Common problems in writing an introduction1. Too much detail, and hence too long. Remember, this is the introduction, a kind of overview. Although you will cover important points, detailed descripti
10、ons of method, study site and results will be in later sections. Look at the proportion of a research paper an introduction takes up. Notice it is comparatively short because it serves as a summary of what follows.2. Repetition of words, phrases or ideas. You will have keywords that are crucial to y
11、our study. However, your reader doesnt want to read them over and over! A high level of repetition makes your writing look careless. To reduce it, highlight repeated words or phrases - then you can easily judge if you are overusing them and find synonyms or pronouns to replace them.3. Unclear proble
12、m definition. Without a clear definition of your research problem, your reader is left with no clear idea of what you were studying. This means that they cannot judge your works relevance to their own work, or its usefulness, quality, etc. As an exercise, you should be able to complete a sentence th
13、at starts, The purpose of this study is . . . that encapsulates the problem you are investigating. Of course you will not include this exact sentence in your thesis, but it serves as an easy way to check that you have a clearly defined problem. In your thesis you should be able to write your researc
14、h problem in one sentence - you can add details in the sentences that follow. You should also ensure that your research problem matches the title of your thesis (youd be surprised how many dont !) as well as its methodology and objectives.4. Poor organization. Writing an introduction that effectivel
15、y introduces your research problem and encapsulates your study is not an easy task. Often when we write we discover gradually what we want to say and how we want to say it. Writing is often a process of discovery. Bear this in mind when you write your introduction, and be prepared to go back and mak
16、e big changes to what you have written, and the order in which you have presented your ideas and information. Your introduction must have a logical sequence that your reader can follow easily. Some suggestions for how to organize your introduction are given below (see the next section and the modifi
17、ed Swales schema).How research paper introductions are organizedThe following schema is a pattern that occurs in a majority of research papers. It is not a set of rules for how you must write - rather, it is a useful guideline for how to think about structuring your information.Step 1 Establish the
18、field by:First you need to establish the area of research in which your work belongs, and to provide a context for the research problem. This has three main elements:A. Claiming centrality (why this field of study is important): Claiming that the area of research is an important one, and therefore i
19、mplying that the research done is also crucial. For example: Minimum safe low temperatures (above freezing) and high humidity control are the most important tools for extending shelf life in vegetables. Here the words the most important tools indicate centrality by showing that these two factors are
20、 crucial.B. Moving from general to specific: Most writing starts with general information and then moves to specific information. This is true of introductions too. For example: In recent years, there has been an increased awareness of the potential impact of pollutants such as heavy metals. Moreove
21、r, the traditional methods for treating aqueous streams containing metal contaminants are expensive and can have inadequate facilities (1). This is particularly true in developing countries. This has led to the use of alternative technologies. The use of biological materials is one such technology w
22、hich has received considerable attention. Explanation to the above example: The first sentence: impact of heavy metals (general). The second sentence: expense and shortcomings of methods of removing heavy metals (less general).The third sentence: expense and shortcomings of methods of removing heavy
23、 metals in developing countries (more specific). The fourth sentence:alternative technologies to overcome expense and shortcomings of methods of removing heavy metals (yet more specific). The fifth sentence:biological materials as an example of alternative technologies to overcome the expense and sh
24、ortcomings of methods of removing heavy metals (very specific). Notice how each sentence adds a piece of information (shown in italics) to move the introduction from the general topic of heavy metals to the specific topic of biological materials as an alternative method of removing heavy metals. Do
25、not begin by being toogeneral. If your work is examining the delivery of cash to ATM machines, do not start by a history of the banking system in Europe since the Middle Ages - its probably not relevant and will mean you will take a very long time to reach the specific area of your research. Think o
26、f general in terms of information which will help your reader understand the context of your research problem (rather than your whole field of study!).C. Reviewing relevant items of previous research: Often the introduction will refer to work already done in the research area in order to provide bac
27、kground (and often also to help define the research problem). For example: Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or complete replacement for fish meal in diets have been conducted using various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983; Murai et al.
28、, 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974). (Takii et al., 1989)Step 2 Define a research problem by:Your research must be new in some way. It must add knowledge to your field so you need to show in what way your work explores an area/issue/question that has previously not been explored, or not been explored in de
29、tail, in not explored in the way that you are going to use. In other words, you need to give a rationale for your work (i.e. show the reasons for doing it). There are four ways to demonstrate that you are adding to the knowledge in your field:A. indicating a gap: A research gap is an area where no o
30、r little research has been carried out. This is shown by outlining the work already done to show where there is a gap in the research (which you will then fill with your research). For example: Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or complete replacement for fish meal i
31、n diets have been conducted using various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983; Murai et al., 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974). However, very little is known about the feasibility of using soybean meal as a dietary protein source in practical feeds for yellowtail Seriola quinque
32、radiata. (Takii et al., 1989)B. raising a question: The research problem is defined by asking a question to which the answer is unknown, and which you will explore in your research. For example: The question we address here is how technological change occurs when it is the overall system that needs to be changed. In particular, how can we begin and sustain a technological transition away from hydrocarbon based technologies? C. continuing a previously developed line of inquiry: Building on work already done, but taking it further (by using a new sample, extending the area studi
