1、企业家精神在出口贸易中的作用印度中国台湾软件出口的比较外文翻译外文翻译原文The role of export-driven entrepreneurship in economic development:A cpmparison of software exports from India,China,and TaiwanMaterial Source: Technological Forecasting & Social Change 71 (2004) 799822 Author: Farok J. Contractor, Sumit Kundu 5. Entrepreneurship
2、 in software exports: a comparison between India and TaiwanMost importantly for India, the entrepreneurial qualities inherent in software exports may represent a powerful example for other sectors, as well as stimulate a faster liberalization of Indian government policy (Arora and Athreye). The foll
3、owing section of the paper asks whether software export success is based on firm or entrepreneur characteristics. Sample firms in India and Taiwan were surveyed in 2000, and data on their operations between 1995 and 1999 were compared.5.1. Indian software exportersThe Indian software industry grew f
4、rom US$553 million in 199394 to more than US$6 billion in 2001, with 60% of its output exported abroad, with important destinations being North America, Western Europe, and Japan.5.2. Taiwanese software industryUnlike India, Taiwans software industry has a strong connection to a domestic hardware in
5、dustry. Taiwan has been a major manufacturer of hardware for the global IT market. Together with its domestic market, the total IT market size for Taiwan is bigger than Indias.To increase product competitiveness, Taiwanese hardware manufacturers embed software into their products to increase value.
6、Taiwans semiconductor industry has also flourisheddomestic production output by 1996 had reached US$6.5 billion. The integrated circuit (IC) design industry also utilizes software tools to develop new products. Therefore, to accurately calculate the total value of the software industry in Taiwan, th
7、ese two industrial sectors need to be included. Unlike the software industry in India, where most software companies are stand-alone businesses, the sector in Taiwan comprises not only individual companies, but also subsidiaries of major hardware or IC manufacturers. Because of a limited domestic ma
8、rket, Taiwanese companies internationalized early for scale and risk diversification, aided by government grants. From 1996 to 2000, significant growth in export volume, scope of business, and export area took place using overseas offices and alliances. 5.3. Questionnaire administrationFour hundred
9、and fifty firms in the Indian sample were drawn from Directory of Indian Exporters of Computer Software and Information Technology Enabled Services, 19981999 (Ministry of Commerce). A questionnaire was mailed to chief executive officers (CEO) of these software firms.Taiwanese firms were identified f
10、rom the Information Service Industry Association of R.O.C. (Taiwan), which has 665 members. To avoid firm-size bias and to be consistent with the subsample from India, 78 firms were removed because these companies or their parents are publicly traded in either Taiwan or foreign stock markets. The re
11、maining 587 met the criterion of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Taiwan (i.e., a paid-in capital of less than NT$5 million or total employees fewer than 100 and annual sales of less than NT$5 million or number of employees fewer than 50).5.4. Regression modelA regression analysis, using as de
12、pendent variables1) A firms export intensity (% of turnover exported) widely used in the literature by Axinn , Burton and Schlegelmilch, Bilkey, and Bello and Williamson; and2) Export growth rate.It was performed with a log-linear specification (semilog specification), where the partial slope of a v
13、ariable is a function of the level of the dependent variable, inasmuch as entrepreneur attributes and firm-level characteristics as independent variables are exponentially related to the two dependent variables.The explanatory variables are grouped into two categories:Entrepreneur characteristicsEdu
14、cational background of entrepreneurInternational experience of entrepreneurTechnological innovativenessStrategic orientationFirm-level characteristicsSize of firmAge of firmInternational experience of firmForeign expertise of employeesForeign market coverage5.4.1. Entrepreneur attributesTechnical ed
15、ucation was measured by asking the entrepreneurs/CEOs in each company to indicate their undergraduate and/or graduate level of studies and field of specialization. International experience was measured by asking whether they possessed foreign expertise and the number of years of their personal inter
16、national experience. Technological innovativeness was measured by a scale developed by Rogers and Schumaker that ranges from technical pioneer to traditionalist. International strategic orientation was measured through a question gauging their ability to simultaneously handle the contrasting strateg
17、ies of globalization and localization.5.4.2. Firm characteristicsThe size of firms was operationalized by (a) total sales and (b) number of employees. Because of the high correlation between them (.668), just one measure (the number of employees) was used. The age of the firm was coded as the year t
18、he company was formed. International experience was measured by asking for the year in which the firm started exporting on a consistent basis, as in Cavusgil and Zou 20. (Note that this makes for a negative expected sign to verify the hypothesis.) The foreign expertise of employees was measured thro
19、ugh a dummy variable, similar to Diamantopuolos and Inglis 21. Finally, the geographical scope (or foreign market coverage) of the firm measures the geographical dispersion or scope of foreign market coverage, along a local/regional/global sales coverage spectrum for the firms customers. A total of
20、108 responses was received (47 from the Indian subsample and 61 from Taiwan) from a target list of 1037 companies.5.5. Discussion of resultsTable 6 reports results for the ANOVA test for comparisons between India and Taiwan. We see significant differences between Indian and Taiwanese entrepreneurs.
21、While the educational background of the sample entrepreneurs is higher in Taiwan, Indian entrepreneurs/CEOs have greater international experience and technological innovativeness. As for the firm-level characteristics, the two variables in which India and Taiwanese firms are significantly different
22、are size (larger in Taiwan) and foreign expertise of employees (higher in India). These comparisons reflect the somewhat different backgrounds of the software sectors in the two nations. Taiwanese firms may be larger, and their leaders may be more highly educated, because of the association with lar
23、ge chip and hardware companies in Taiwan. Indian software firms, by contrast, are more stand-alone operations whose foreign export success depends on the greater foreign exposure of both the entrepreneurs and their employees. Lacking a hardware industry base, Indian software entrepreneurs also regis
24、ter greater technological innovativeness, although the direction of causality between export success and innovativeness is not known.5.6. Entrepreneur characteristicsThe hypothesis that entrepreneurs with technical and/or professional education will have strong export performance was strongly suppor
25、ted across the board for both Taiwan and India, with significance generally better than .01 for both export performance measures, viz., export growth and export intensity.The hypothesis that entrepreneurs who have had greater international business experience in their personal background will have s
26、tronger export performance in their companies was not supported. It was also hypothesized that innovative entrepreneurs would have superior export performance. This hypothesis is supported in three of the four models and fails to achieve significance only for the export growth dependent variable in
27、India. The final test under Entrepreneur Characteristics, examines the impact of strategic orientation of the entrepreneur and measures its impact on performance measures. The results show some support for the hypothesis that an entrepreneurs strategic orientation that emphasizes glocalization (the
28、ability to simultaneously handle global and local market demands) isthe way to achieve success abroad.5.7. Firm-level characteristics:What is the impact of firm size on performance measures? The regression coefficients with respect to size are not significant in any regression. The null hypothesisth
29、at firm size will have no significant impact on export performancewas supported.A null hypothesis stated that there would be no statistical link between a firms age and its export performance. This null hypothesis was supported. The next hypothesis examines the influence of the firms international e
30、xperience on export growth and intensity. We had hypothesized a positive relationship. (However, this would be verified by an expected negative sign because the international experience variable was coded simply as the year in which the first significant exports were recorded by the company.) There
31、is a negative relationship across the board and significant all four runs supporting this hypothesis.Next, we hypothesized that the extent of foreign expertise of a firms employees would have a positive impact on its export performance. This hypothesis is strongly supported for both countries. The f
32、inal hypothesis was that the greater the foreign geographical coverage of the software exports, the better the performance. This was not supported for India, and in the case of Taiwan, this produced an unexpected negative sign, with significance. This could be as a result of Taiwans software producers being more linked to their domestic hardware industry than in the case of India, where most of the software sector is a stand-alone business with export orientation. However, this is only an ex post hypothesis, and alternative explanations for the contrary finding
